[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Continuing Chapter VII: "A Black Hole Universe (B.H.U.)"


From the time of Einstein, scientists have known many of the basic physical laws that are operating in the universe. However, until now they have not yet been able to completely synthesise all the elements. This is partially due to the fact that their ideas of the universe are somewhat restricted to the idea that the universe consists of a four dimensional structure. The four dimension being three spatial and one of time making it a space-time continuum.

Time, size and mass of a rest mass object are relative quantities and they form a space that encompasses the object. An object with a rest mass has a size which can be measured by length, depth and height or by its radius or volume. The distances between physical objects can be measured and this can be regarded as space or a volume that occupies a space. But take away the objects, then there is no space. Objects have space or there exists space between objects, but there is no space apart from the objects. Zero rest mass objects like quanta particles or electromagnetic radiations or pure energy which have the qualities of gravity and momentum, can also form a volume and space. Pure energy also forms a space which encompasses it.

Time according to Einstein’s special theory of relativity, is related to the speed of an object which also affects its size and mass. Space does not so much depend on time, but rather on the existence of objects or energy. Space exists where objects and energy exist and the extend of space is depending on the extend of the existence of objects and energy. If energy has existed from the beginning of time, space has also existed from the beginning of time and the measurement of space is depending on the extend or volume of the existence of energy. If energy has existed from the beginning of time throughout the universe, the space or volume of the universe has also existed from the beginning of time. Space is not so much depending on time but to the extent or size of the volume of objects and energy.

Time in the fourth dimension of the universe depends on the speed of an object in relation of other objects. The faster an objects moves in relation to an observer, the slower is its time factor. If an object moves as fast as the speed of light, its time factor is zero. If space is depending on time, and the time factor is zero than there must be zero space between the moving object and the observer. This cannot be true and it means that space is independent of time.

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Continuing with Chapter VII: "A Black Hole Universe (B.H.U.)"


According to Einstein, nothing can move as fast as the speed of light except light itself. This places light or quanta particles in a very special dimension in regards to the universe; it exists in its fifth dimension. Looking at light from the fourth dimension, its time factor is zero. This means that its movement must be simultaneously throughout the universe; its takes zero time for light to travel from one part of the universe to another. However, when looking at the speed of light from the fifth dimension of the universe, its time factor is regular and does not increase or decrease but can be measured as if it existed in its own inertial frame of reference. The universe in its fifth dimension forms its own frame of reference, where its time dimension is constant and cannot be altered. This is shown by the fact that the speed of light is one of the universal constants as Einstein had assumed when he discovered the laws of relativity.

Sir Isaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation and he held that all objects in the universe are interrelated. When Albert Einstein first proposed a theory of the universe according to the general laws of relativity, he speculated about the existence of another universal constant. This force is known as the cosmological constant that opposed the force of gravity in the universe and so makes the universe stable or static. Einstein discarded this proposition later when he thought that the universe was expanding. However, there are scientists today who would speculate about the existence of such a force that would affect the rate of expansion of the universe.

Einstein also discovered the principle of equivalence which holds that gravitational and inertial mass are equivalent. From this it could be argued that gravity and inertia are equivalent; also the force of gravity and the force of inertia, and that in the universe, the gravitational energy is equivalent to kinetic energy. This principle of equivalence may be applied to the universe in the fifth dimension which looks at the whole universe only in terms of gravitational and kinetic energies.

From this it can be speculated that the total quantity of energy of the universe is the sum of both the total amount of gravitational and kinetic energies. Thus:

M c^2 = (( M C^2 ) / 2 ) + (( G M^2) / R )

where (M) is the total mass and energy of the universe including both rest mass particles and zero rest mass particles. (G) stands for the universal gravitational constant, (c) is the speed of light and (R) is the radius of the universe. If the gravitational energy of the universe is equivalent to the inertial energy than it can be speculated that the gravitational force of the universe is equivalent to the inertial force of the universe. There exists not only gravity but also an inertial force in the universe and these forces are equal and opposite. This universal inertial force of the universe could be thought of as Einstein’s cosmological constant that prevents the universe from collapsing into a singularity.

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Continuing Chapter VII: "A Black Hole Universe (B.H.U.)".


It could be objected that pure energy or electromagnetic radiation or quanta particles have no rest mass and thus they would have no gravitation or momentum. However, Einstein had proved that electromagnetic radiation do have a photoelectric effect which means it has momentum and is influenced or affected by gravitation. Quanta particles have a zero rest mass which means that they do not have any rest mass and can never come to rest. But they do have some kind of mass that could be called virtual mass. Einstein had presumed in his investigation of the laws of relativity that the speed of light is constant which means that the quanta particles move at a constant rate and could never be at rest. Thus quanta particles do not have rest mass but since they do carry momentum and are affected by gravity, they display the qualities of a mass which means that they must have some kind of mass eg. virtual mass.

Scientists talk about virtual particles in the quanta theory. These virtual particles are virtual because they have virtual masses that carry energies both gravitational and inertial. When a rest mass particle gains energy it will increase both its momentum and mass which shows that energy has both mass and inertia. Quanta particles have zero rest mass and consist of a quantity of energy which is its frequency times the Planck constant. Both the gravitational and inertial energies of the universe are conserved because of the law of conservation of energy: energy can not be created nor destroyed. From the above energy equation of the universe it is quite easy to work out the equation of its radius:

R = ( 2GM ) / c^2

This turns out to be a very important equation discovered by Karl Schwarzschild (1873-1916) and is known as the Schwarzschild radius or the event horizon of a black hole. The essential feature of a black hole is that its escape velocity is that of the speed of light. Since nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, nothing can escape from it, not even light. If the universe is a vast black hole whose escape velocity is greater than that of the speed of light, this would confirm Newton theory that all masses and energies of the universe are interrelated. No masses or energy exists outside the universe.

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Continuing with Chapter VII: "A Black Hole Universe (B.H.U.)."

The proposition that the universe is a vast black hole containing all energy and masses is possible and should be carefully investigated. In its most fundamental structure it would be a self contained frame of reference not of the fourth dimension but rather of the fifth dimension. This would mean that the basic constituent element of the universe consists of pure energy or electromagnetic radiation or quanta particles. Since this energy cannot be created or destroyed it must have existed from the beginning of time and will exist until the end of time.

Einstein’s law of equivalence seems to hold that pure radiant energy consists of two fundamental equal but opposite forces eg. gravitational and kinetic. If this is true throughout the universe in its fifth dimension, than the universe can neither contract nor expand, it must be static. Radiant energy by its very nature has zero rest mass and thus is in continual motion, but it does exhibit an inertial and gravitation dimension as shown by the photoelectric effect. From this it can be assumed that energy has some kind of virtual mass and it can lead to an explanation of the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle.

Pure energy or quanta particles are part of the fifth dimension and thus it has virtual mass which cannot rest and has no dimension of length when viewed from the fourth dimension. Thus, its position and its momentum cannot be measured at the same time. Its position cannot be measured because its length is zero and its time can not be determined because as it moves at the speed of light, its time factor is zero. However, it will display both a particle and wave dimension at the same time since it carries both gravitational and inertial energies.

This black hole model of the universe would preclude the necessity of a singularity, the expansion of the universe and the possibility of its contraction. If both the gravitational and inertial force of energy is universal and thus acts throughout the universe, the gravitational force would balance the inertial force. The gravitational and inertial forces of pure energy remain constant and cannot be diminished nor can they interchange because energy cannot be created nor destroyed. This would mean that the balance between the gravitational and inertial forces in the universe is constant. It is important to remember that this occurs in the fifth dimension of pure energy. This does not occur of course in the fourth dimension between objects which have rest masses where the normal laws of relativity operate.

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Continuing with Chapter VII: "A Black Hole Universe ( B.H.U.).

In a black hole of the fifth dimension, consisting of pure energy the gravitational and inertial forces are equal and opposite and these forces cannot be interchanged. This means that the gravitational energy cannot be changed into inertial energy and vice versa because they are constant. However, the quanta particles are constantly moving at the speed of light and have no rest mass. These quanta particles in the fifth dimension cannot be collected at the centre of gravity like objects which do have rest mass in the fourth dimension. The kinetic and gravitational forces are active throughout the black hole and do not concentrate at its centre. The universe as a whole, forms an independent system of energy where the total energy remains constant.

Since these forces are constant, the quanta particles cannot increase in speed; however, they can be bent or gravitationally red-shifted under the influence of gravity. This means that the greatest gravitational red-shift or bending occurs where there exists the strongest force of gravity. In a black hole the strongest force of gravity is at its event horizon and not at its centre because at its event horizon its gravitational force is so strong that it prevents even light from escaping. At its centre there exists a gravitational balance or equilibrium and it is equal in all directions.

This fact is very significant. If the force of gravity is most effective at the event horizon in a black hole, than most of its energy must be concentrated at the event horizon and not at its centre. Every black hole has a temperature according to its quantity of energy which also determines its radius, its size and its density. The greater the quantity of energy or mass, the greater is its radius and the smaller its density and universal temperature. However, since its temperature depends on its density of energy, and if the density of energy is greatest at its event horizon, its temperature is also the greatest at the event horizon. It could possibly be assumed that the greatest temperature in the universe is at the event horizon and not at its centre.

The temperature of the event horizon could be likened to the temperature of the universe just after its beginning as is proposed by the theory of the big bang. As in the theory of the big bang, sub-atomic particle formation occurred just after its beginning, so too sub-atomic particle formation could occur at the event horizon of the black hole universe. The great difference between the two theories is that in the big bang theory particle formation occurs only at its beginning. Whereas in the black hole universe theory the formation of sub-atomic particles can be continuous and can continue as long as the universe exists.

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Concluding Chapter VII: "A Black Hole Universe (B.H.U.)".

The black hole universe theory could possibly also give an explanation to the fact that the universe we observe, consists predominantly of positive rather than of negative matter. According to the theory of Stephen Hawking, sub-atomic particles are formed by quantum fluctuation at the event horizon and occur in positive-negative pairs. If this is true than it could happen that the negative and positive pair particles are so formed, are captured and separated at the event horizon of the black hole universe. The negative matter particles are predominantly captured and held near the exterior of the event horizon, whereas the positive matter particles escape within the interior of the black hole universe. This would make it a negative universe with a positive interior. While the positive matter would be scattered throughout the interior of the universe the negative matter is kept at its perimeter, on its exterior side of the event horizon.

As the positive matter is scattered into the interior, it cools forming sub-atomic particles, the different forces or interactions, atoms and molecules. As these collect they form the proto-galaxies, galaxies, stars, solar systems, planets, moons and all the rest of the heavenly bodies. Just as the different sub-atomic particles of the positive matter are formed so are also the different forces in nature. The electromagnetic force exists when there are electron particles and nucleons, the weak nuclear force arises where there are neutron particles and the strong nuclear force exists where there are nuclei holding protons and neutrons together in the nuleus of atoms. These different sub-atomic particles, forces, atoms and molecules are all composed of the same basic energy or quanta particles that make up the universe.

The universe seen in its fifth dimension, consists of pure kinetic and gravitational energies in the form of quanta particles. However, when observing the universe in its fourth dimension, it seems to consist of both pure energy and matter. These matter particles exist only in the fourth dimension and they obey the laws of relativity. Different forms of energies interchange and matter itself can change into pure energy and pure energy can be formed into matter. There seems to be a continuous evolution; energy is continuously changed into matter by quantum fluctuation and matter is continuously formed back into pure energy by nuclear burning in stars.

This concludes Chapter VII, taken from the book: "The Physical Cosmos". The next Chapter VIII: "Universal Constants.", will follow.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

I come now to a new Chapter of my book, "The Physical Cosmos.", Chpter VIII,: "Universal Constants."

CHAPTER VIII.

UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS.

Scientists have discovered a number of universal constants that are invariable and seem to operate throughout the universe. The three most basic universal constants which are well known are: Universal gravitation, the speed of light in a vacuum and the Planck constant. All three universal constants are interconnected and are fundamental to the laws that govern the universe.

The question one could asks is: Why are these universal constants invariable and how are they essential interconnected with each other? Is it possible that these constants can change over time in the universe? For instance: some scientists seem to say that the gravitational constant seems to change in time as the universe is expanding or with distance. However, this is only a theory and not yet a proven fact. As far as scientists can tell from observations all these laws are constant and operate throughout the universe.

The universal gravitational constant was discovered by Isaac Newton who worked out the law of gravitation which is a force that acts between masses that are separated by a distant.
The formula of the force of gravity is:

F = (m1 m2 G) / d^2

where the term (G) is the gravitational constant and its value is:

6.67259(85) x 10^-11 Nm^2 kg^-2

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Continuing with Chapter VIII; "Universal Constants."

Newton lived centuries before Albert Einstein discovered the laws of relativities. Newton’s law of motions which initiated Newtonian mechanics, differ from the laws of relativity which are the basis for relativistic mechanics. Newton regarded time to be constant but Einstein discovered that time is relative depending on the speed of the object moving in relation to the observer. The faster the object is moving, the slower is its time factor and if it was moving as fast as the speed of light, its time factor would be zero. This meant that at slow speeds Newton’s mechanics can still be applied but if the speed of the objects were nearing the speed of light, Newton’s laws were not accurate and have to be replaced with Einstein’s laws of relativity.

Einstein regarded all objects in the universe as moving relative to each other with a speed or velocity less than the speed of light. This meant that the laws of relativity have strictly to be applied throughout the universe to all objects which have rest mass and which could only move slower than the speed of light. This is true if one looks at all the objects in the universe from the fourth or space-time dimension. However, one could look at the universe in its fifth dimension, the universe as a whole, where basic energy or electromagnetic radiation which consists of zero rest mass or virtual mass, move at a constant speed of light. From this particular point of view relativity time is zero and the universe as a whole forms its own independent energy system with its own state of reference where Newtonian mechanics can be applied.

To view the universe as a whole in its fifth dimension is important in order to understand the different universal constants and the interconnections that exists between them. If the universe as a whole is a non moving black-hole containing all energies and matter it would have its own frame of reference. In this particular case the Newtonian laws can be applied to those zero rest mass objects that move at the speed of light which are not bound by relative time. This would not violate the laws of special relativity but can be regarded as a special case. In this particular case then, the laws of Newtonian mechanics can be applied not only to the force of gravity, but also to the inertial force, gravitational and inertial energies and zero rest mass particles like the quanta particles and photons.

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[cosvis]

Hi to all,

Continuing Chapter VIII, "Universal Constants."

Another universal constant discovered is the speed of light which is:

c = 2.99792458 x 10^8 m s^-1

It took scientists a long time to work out the nature and speed of light. The finiteness of light was established in 1676 by Ole Roemer(1644-1710) who gave the first measurement. It was Isaac Newton who proposed a corpuscular theory of light which became popular among scientists. However, Thomas Young (1772- 1829) rediscovered the interference pattern of light and proposed a wave theory. Accepting this theory James Clerk Maxwell (1831- 79) showed that light forms part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The Michelson-Moreley experiment proved that light could travel in a non-detectable medium. Albert Einstein showed in 1905 that light consisted of a stream of discrete photons of electro- magnetic energy. The wave corpuscular nature of light was finally settled by the quantum theory and wave mechanics.

In order to work out the laws of special Relativity, Albert Einstein presumed that the speed of light in a vacuum was constant and it was time that was relative depending on the speed of the object. A vacuum exists where there are no mass objects that is, there are no objects which have rest masses. When light passes through a medium like water where there does exists rest mass objects, the speed of light is affected which can be observed and measured. However, a vacuum can exist where there is only electromagnetic radiation or pure energy which have only zero rest masses or virtual masses. Such a vacuum would be in the fifth dimension and the speed of light would be constant.

In order to show that the speed of light in the fifth dimension of the universe is constant, it is important to talk about the Planck constant. It is a fundamental constant which is denoted by the letter (h) and it relates the energy of a light photon to its frequency, eg:

E = f h

This means that the energy of a quantum particle has a frequency and a quantity of energy; it shows both the particle nature of light and its wave nature. Its measurement is:

h = 6.6260755(40) x 10^-34 Joule seconds.

It was Max Ernest Planck (1858-1947) who first proposed in 1900 that electromagnetic radiation was emitted and absorbed only in definite units of energy which he called quanta. It was Albert Einstein who then suggested that electromagnetic radiation which included light, are actually individual particles known as photons. A photon is thus a particle with zero rest mass or a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. It consists of a unit of energy which is measured by the Planck constant times the frequency of the radiation in hertz. Thus:

photon = hf

The smallest quantity of energy is a quantum particle with a frequency of one. However, it is a fundamental law of modern mechanics that energy cannot be created or destroyed. This means that as energy is constant or conserved, the energy of a quantum particle with a frequency of one is constant or conserved. If a quantum particle of energy is constant than the energy of a photon particle which consists of a definite number of quanta particles depending on its frequency, must also be constant unless it increases or decreases its frequency.

To be continued.

Yours Cosvis.

[Signo]

Originally Posted by cosvis

Stars are born, form solar systems, planets and other heavenly bodies but eventually, all are consumed and die out. Galaxies are continuously been formed, they are formed into various shapes and formations but eventually after their life span, they die.

This kinda stuff takes a little bit longer than your 6,000'ish year old history of the universe.