Michael Faraday (1791-1867) as a physicist and as a chemist was unusual and unique in the scientific sense of these two dignified professions by the fact that his 3 volumes, 641 pages, 3362 numbered paragraphs treatise: Experimental Researches in Electricity does not contain one single mathematical equation. For the sake of clarity, in many areas where he lacked mathematical expressions he made up with tables of empirical data, drawings, diagrams, schematics, and proportional sketches. All of these helped to describe his findings. Among the best of his accurate sketches can be found between paragraph 3222 and 3223 which is also marked as Plate XVI. These are the 24 figures showing various configurations of magnetic lines of force. It is absolutely certain that these same lines of force were the beginning of a mathematical field theory of classical electromagnetism in the hand of a younger Scottish mathematician physicist named James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879). Maxwell credited his mathematical success to Faraday’s discoveries and noted same in the preface to the 1st edition of his 2 volumes, 1000 plus pages Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Inside these pages, Maxwell unified the electric field and the magnetic field and discovered the speed of light as the same speed of electromagnetic radiation.

Although Maxwell believed the existence of a luminiferous aether as the hypothetical substance filling all space for the propagation of electromagnetic waves, the failures to detect this aether medium by Michelson and Morley in the 1880s allowed Einstein, in 1905, to postulate his second principle for the special theory of relativity. It is stated that the velocity of light is independent of the motion of its source. Although the speed of light is a physical constant of nature, light from receding objects exhibits Doppler redshifts, elongating its wavelengths and lowering its frequencies; while light from approaching objects exhibits blueshifts, shortening its wavelengths and giving higher frequencies. The fact that more and more galaxies are redshifting allowed Edwin Hubble (1859-1953) to propose the ipso principium universal expansion. Consequently, Hubble’s discovery busted Einstein’s dream of a static universe.