math of carbon isomers

[AntonioLao]

It is said that only a diamond can cut another diamond. But diamonds are made of only carbon atoms, same as the tip of a sharp pencil. So, why cans the pencil cut the diamond? For some people, the surprising answer is isomerism. That is the existence of chemical compounds that have equal molecular formulas but different molecular structures or different spatial atomic arrangements. Isomerism occurs in many natural substances and artificial man-made aramid fiber, an isomer of ammonia, can be transformed into bullet-proof vests made of Kevlar. The widest and the most applicable isomers are that of carbon and its compounds, which would include many organic compounds of hydrocarbons (e.g. finding isomers for cheaper gasoline) and other carbon compounds for all living things of both plants and animals. The most varied in physical properties are the nuclear isomers. The relation of two or more nuclides that have equal atomic number but not mass number giving different energy levels and half-lives. These would include the different isotopes of carbon. There are two stable isotopes namely: Carbon-12 and Carbon-13. But there are four radioactive forms namely: Carbon-10, Carbon-11, Carbon-14, and Carbon-15. The use of radioactive Carbon-14 is a method of estimating the age of archaeological specimens of biological origin. Cosmic rays interactions with the upper region of the atmosphere by superfast neutron bombardments can transform gaseous nitrogen into radioactive Carbon-14 by this nuclear reaction ¹⁴N₇+n→¹⁴C₆+p. Subsequently, portions of these radiocarbons are absorbed into living plants in the form of radioactive CO₂ by the process of photosynthesis. When the plants die, photosynthesis stops, the measured ratio of Carbon-14 and Carbon-12 enables botanists to calculate the elapsed time. This method gives consistent results within 50000 ± 200 years. However, its accuracy depends on the assumption of prehistoric cosmic ray’s intensity. For more detailed discussions, see page 843 of Linus Pauling’s General Chemistry.

[labelwench]

Linus Pauling is the only individual in history to have won two unshared Nobel Prizes: for Chemistry in 1954 and the Peace Prize 1962. Many people know him for his more recent important work in micronutrient research on the role of Vitamin C in human health and longevity.

http://www.isepp.org/Pages/ISEPP%20P...ingLegacy.html

Over the next decade Linus transformed his field, and laid the foundations of modern chemistry. Before Pauling chemistry was a hodgepodge of empirical hits and misses, dis-unified by a collection of piecemeal, semicoherent theories. Pauling's famous book: The Nature of the Chemical Bond provided the new unifying basis that established the golden age of systematic chemistry. In the next two decades Pauling extended his investigations into biology. Here, it is no exaggeration to state that Linus Pauling founded modern molecular biology. Except for having his passport revoked by the government, for his political opposition to atmospheric nuclear testing, many believe that he would have discovered the structure of the DNA molecule; and we never would have heard of Watson and Crick.

All is connected, hence the need for a means of unifying our many perspectives and fractured disciplines.

Do you suspect the carbon isotopes of being a key, Antonio?

[AntonioLao]

Do you suspect the carbon isotopes of being a key

Not if it is radioactive. But the 2 stable isotopes are Carbon-12 and Carbon-13. The problem is how do we determine which of these are in one molecule of Vitamin-C?

[labelwench]

Not if it is radioactive. But the 2 stable isotopes are Carbon-12 and Carbon-13. The problem is how do we determine which of these are in one molecule of Vitamin-C?

Eat fruits and veggies. Nature has placed the correct carbon isotope in each life form in the correct proportion, when it comes to Vitamin C, and all the rest. Not to say that our interference and raising of 'hothouse produce' in the off season may provide the optimum source of nutrition, hence the argument for eating foods grown closer to home, which are also more environmentally friendly, reducing our carbon footprint.

If, by our choices, we are disrupting this natural balance, then we should either return to an understanding of our role in the overall scheme (participation, rather than dominance) or perish, to make way for the evolution of a more competent species.

[AntonioLao]

I still don't understand why there are twice as many radioactive carbon isotopes than there are stable isotopes found in nature? And this mystery is compounded by the fact that radioactivity is harmful to life but radioactivity allows the biological process of mutation.

[labelwench]

I still don't understand why there are twice as many radioactive carbon isotopes than there are stable isotopes found in nature? And this mystery is compounded by the fact that radioactivity is harmful to life but radioactivity allows the biological process of mutation.

Do you think that above ground nuclear testing may have contributed, as herein speculated?

Formation during nuclear tests

Atmospheric 14C, New Zealand[8] and Austria[9]. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of 14C in the Northern Hemisphere [10].

The above-ground nuclear tests that occurred in several countries between 1955 and 1963 dramatically increased the amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere and subsequently in the biosphere; after the tests ended the atmospheric concentration of the isotope began to decrease.

One side effect of the change in atmospheric carbon-14 is that this enables the determination of the birth year of an individual: the amount of carbon-14 in tooth enamel is measured with accelerator mass spectrometry and compared to records of past atmospheric carbon-14 concentrations. Since teeth are formed at a specific age and do not exchange carbon thereafter, this method allows age to be determined to within 1.6 years. This method only works for individuals born s

Atmospheric 14C, New Zealand[8] and Austria[9]. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of 14C in the Northern Hemisphere [10].

The above-ground nuclear tests that occurred in several countries between 1955 and 1963 dramatically increased the amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere and subsequently in the biosphere; after the tests ended the atmospheric concentration of the isotope began to decrease.

One side effect of the change in atmospheric carbon-14 is that this enables the determination of the birth year of an individual: the amount of carbon-14 in tooth enamel is measured with accelerator mass spectrometry and compared to records of past atmospheric carbon-14 concentrations. Since teeth are formed at a specific age and do not exchange carbon thereafter, this method allows age to be determined to within 1.6 years. This method only works for individuals born after 1943,[11][12] and it must be known whether the individual was born in the Northern or the Southern Hemisphere.

What about the increase in human population and our activities on the planet, in addition to the nuclear testing? Are we contributing in other ways? Does radon, released when excavations are made, basements built, etc. contribute?

[AntonioLao]

above ground nuclear testing may have contributed

I dont think so. But nuclear processes in prehistoric eras might have been above ground?

[labelwench]

I dont think so. But nuclear processes in prehistoric eras might have been above ground?

Such is entirely possible, based on some of what I have encountered in my reading....

There is evidence that the Rama empire (now India) was devastated by nuclear war. The Indus valley is now the Thar desert, and the site of the radioactive ash found west of Jodhpur is around there. A heavy layer of radioactive ash in Rajasthan, India, covers a three-square mile area, ten miles west of Jodhpur. Scientists are investigating the site, where a housing development was being built. For some time it has been established that there is a very high rate of birth defects and cancer in the area under construction. The levels of radiation there have registered so high on investigators’ gauges that the Indian government has now cordoned off the region. Scientists have unearthed an ancient city where evidence shows an atomic blast dating back thousands of years, from 8,000 to 12,000 years, destroyed most of the buildings and probably a half-million people. One researcher estimates that the nuclear bomb used was about the size of the ones dropped on Japan in 1945.

Another curious sign of an ancient nuclear war in India is a giant crater near Bombay. The nearly circular 2,154-metre-diameter Lonar crater, located 400 kilometres northeast of Mumbai and aged at less than 50,000 years old, could be related to nuclear warfare of antiquity. No trace of any meteoric material, etc., has been found at the site or in the vicinity, and this is the world’s only known “impact” crater in basalt. Indications of great shock (from a pressure exceeding 600,000 atmospheres) and intense, abrupt heat (indicated by basalt glass spherules) can be ascertained from the site.

http://ajithkumar.cc/history/nuclear...-beyond-doubt/

Fascinating to me, that there is so much 'circumstantial evidence' and yet no hard and fast proofs.....

[AntonioLao]

On the other hand, intergalactic cosmic rays in the upper region of the atmosphere do create radioactive products. Luckily most of these radioactive products are trapped in the ionosphere. Sadly, few do reached the ground. Maybe these are the causes of aging processes of living things.