ToEpedia-Contribute To The Quest

[analog]

Once a theory gets to a certain stage, it needs to refine exactly what it's trying to explain. There are many observable phenomena in our universe along with many formulas and theories about them, already in existence.

I spend much of my time searching books, and the internet, trying to further my thoughts, as I'm certain many others also do. In doing so, we all inevitably come across valuable information only to forget where we found it, or not realize how interesting it might be to others on the same quest; thus I created this thread whereby we are all able to contribute thoughts on what exactly we're trying to explain (observable phenomena) with our unification theories, along with information we may come across along the way that may help us, or others, in explaining these phenomena. Suggested reading on certain subjects would also be helpful to many, along with links to threads as they pertain to varying topics. All members are also invited to paste a link to their own threads here with a description of their topic.

I would ask for everyone's help in "Contributing To The Quest" as they find information, or thoughts, they see as relevant to our journey, but I would also ask that we merely provide links to the more lengthy content, rather than posting page after page on the same subject. For those contributions that don't have links, such as quotes from books, lectures etc., please provide sources as often as possible for those of us who may wish to do further research.

Information from all current models such as: Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Electrodynamics, String Theory, Relativity, Big Bang etc. are all welcomed and should probably be labeled as to which theory they pertain to; if it isn't obvious.

This thread isn't intended to debate theories or current models; it's intended to give us a one-stop place to contribute our collective knowledge, rather than it being scattered throughout the forum, whereby we may have an in-house resource to do research and hopefully find helpful information.

Thanks,

Tim

[analog]

Physics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Physics is the science of matter and its motion, as well as space and time. It uses concepts such as energy, force, mass, and charge. Physics is an experimental science, creating theories that are tested against observations. Broadly, it is the general scientific analysis of nature, with a goal of understanding how the universe behaves.

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, and through its modern subfield of astronomy, it may be the oldest of all. Experimental physics began in the Middle Ages and eventually emerged as a modern science during the early modern period. Those who work professionally in the field are known as physicists.

Advances in physics often translate to the technological sector, and sometimes influence the other sciences, as well as mathematics and philosophy. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism have led to the widespread use of electrically driven devices (televisions, computers, home appliances etc.); advances in thermodynamics led to the development of motorized transport; and advances in mechanics led to the development of calculus, quantum chemistry, and the use of instruments such as the electron microscope in microbiology.

Today, physics is a broad and highly developed subject. Research is often divided into four subfields: condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; high-energy physics; and astronomy and astrophysics. Most physicists also specialize in either theoretical or experimental research, the former dealing with the development of new theories, and the latter dealing with the experimental testing of theories and the discovery of new phenomena. Despite important discoveries during the last four centuries, there are a number of unsolved problems in physics, and many areas of active research.


Contents

1 Branches of physics
1.1 Classical mechanics
1.2 Electromagnetism
1.3 Relativity
1.4 Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
1.5 Quantum mechanics

2 Research
2.1 Theory and experiment
2.2 Research fields
2.3 Condensed matter
2.4 Atomic, molecular, and optical
2.5 High energy/particle physics
2.6 Astrophysics
2.7 Applied physics
2.8 Physics Education

3 References

4 Further reading
4.1 Organizations

Source: wikipedia (all links are also to that site)



I thought I would start us off with some basics.

[analog]

Preface

Ever since the dawn of science, the ultimate objective of the theoreticians in the scientific field has been to devise a general physical theory: one in which all physical phenomena are derived from a single set of premises. As expressed by Richard Schlegel of Michigan State University:

In a significant sense, the ideal of science is a single set of principles, or perhaps a set of mathematical equations, from which all the vast process and structure of nature could be deduced.

Up to the present time, all of the many efforts along this line have been fruitless. It has not even been possible to derive the relations in one major physical field from general premises; that is, without making assumptions specifically applicable to that particular field and to that field only. But, the development of the Reciprocal System of theory has now produced just the kind of a thing that Dr. Schlegel describes: a set of basic postulates whose necessary consequences are sufficient in themselves to describe a complete, theoretical universe.

More than 90% of the conclusions derived from these postulates are in agreement with concurrent scientific thought, and are not contested. Thus, the Reciprocal is not only a general physical theory; it is a general physical theory that, on the basis of present knowledge, is at least 90% correct. It therefore constitutes a significant advance in scientific understanding, irrespective of the judgment that may ultimately be passed upon the remaining 10% of the conclusions derived from the theory.

Under the circumstances, many individuals are interested in making a critical examination of the development of thought from the fundamental postulates to the various conclusions in order to satisfy themselves that this development is, in fact, purely deductive. This present work has been designed to facilitate such an examination. In the previous publications which introduced the new theoretical system it was, of course, necessary to devote much of the text to explanation and argument, and even though these works have emphasized the fact that all of the conclusions reached in the theoretical development are derived solely from a determination of the consequences of the postulates, many readers have been unable to follow all of the logical development of the various lines of thought. It is probably that this is due, at least in large part, to a tendency to expect something of a more esoteric nature--some magic formula or all-embracing mathematical expression--rather than the simple "if this, then that" type of deductive developmenet by which the theoretical structure has been constructed. In any event, it has seemed advisable to supplement these previous publications with a presentation which will cover the basic portions of the new system of theory without explanation or argument, and will concentrate entirely on a step-by-step derivation of the pertinent points.......continued at site

This is an excerpt from the preface of THE RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL THEORY by Dewey B. Larson. I'm not promoting it, but it is an interesting read. I thought there might be others who may find interest in it. Here's another link to a collection of essays by him: THE COLLECTED ESSAYS OF DEWEY B. LARSON

Dewey B. Larson (1898-1990) was an American engineer and the originator of the Reciprocal System of physical theory (or Reciprocal System for short), a comprehensive theoretical framework, or Theory of Everything, claimed to be capable of explaining all physical phenomena from subatomic particles to galactic clusters. In this general physical theory space and time are simply the two reciprocal aspects of the sole constituent of the universe – motion. Unique aspects of the theory are that both matter and energy are represented mathematically as greater than or less than unity (t/s or s/t), and three dimensions of time, reciprocals of the three dimensions of space.

The philosopher Samuel Alexander asked the question "How far a science of order could be founded on this bare conception of ordered parts of Space-Time I do not know. ..." but Larson was inspired to make it his life's major work to attempt to find out. Whether Larson's work is metaphysics itself like Alexander's, science or pseudoscience, is debatable. His theory has no mainstream following and is largely ignored by practicing scientists who are aware of it.

Larson also wrote on economic policy and theory.

[analog]

The Distance Scale of the Universe

Cosmology Primer

Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial

Reflections on Relativity

Light and Matter

Before the Big Bang?

The Shape of Space

Cosmology and Cosmic Structure Evolution

Evidence for the Big Bang

A Review of the Universe - Structures, Evolutions, Observations, and Theories

Misconceptions about the Big Bang

How to Become a Good Theoretical Physicist


Here are a few interesting links on physics and cosmology.

[analog]

Sep 1, 2004

Pioneer anomaly put to the test

The European Space Agency is considering a unique experiment that could explain strange gravitational phenomena in the outer solar system

Since 1998 astronomers have known that the space probes Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 are following trajectories that cannot be explained by conventional physics. Launched in 1972 and 1973, respectively, to explore the outer planets, the Pioneer craft are now at the edge of the solar system, with Pioneer 10 being some 86 astronomical units (about 13 billion kilometres) from the Sun. But they are not quite where they should be, based on the gravitational pull of the known bodies in the solar system.

When the craft were at distances of between 20 and 70 astronomical units, researchers found that the Doppler frequency of microwave signals that were bounced off the craft drifted at a small, constant rate (see "Spacecraft anomalies put gravity to the test"). This drift meant that the craft were experiencing a constant acceleration directed towards the Sun, at a level that is 10 billion times weaker that the Earth's gravitational pull. The most obvious explanation for this anomalous deceleration is some mundane systematic effect, such as heat radiating from the craft or leakage from the propulsion thrusters. But no such mechanism has been found.

Attempts to test the anomaly using other spacecraft such as Galileo and the Voyager probes have proved unsuccessful, and the deep-space missions that are currently being developed - for example the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) and the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (JIMO) - will not be designed to test the properties of the Pioneer anomaly. Given this situation, we concluded that the anomaly could no longer be ignored.

At its Cosmic Vision workshop in Paris this month, the European Space Agency (ESA) will consider plans for a number of experiments and missions that will test gravity in new ways, one of which is designed to test the Pioneer anomaly directly. If the anomaly is an indication of new physics, finding its origin might change our understanding of the laws of nature at a very basic level and turn our cosmic backyard into the new terra incognita.
Theoretical proposals

The inability to explain the Pioneer anomaly with conventional forces has led to several theoretical proposals. One is that the deceleration is due to the gravitational attraction of "dark matter" - the invisible matter that astronomers think is responsible for the excess gravity that appears to affect objects on galactic scales.

Other explanations involve modifying Einstein's general theory of relativity, which many theorists think is necessary in order to merge gravity with quantum mechanics. Some of these theories suggest that gravity might attract a little harder than expected at large distances or small accelerations, so the concept of dark matter may not even be necessary.

Meanwhile, there are a number of attempts to go beyond the Standard Model of particle physics. String theory and/or supersymmetry, for example, involve higher dimensions of space that introduce new degrees of freedom and possible violations of space-time symmetries such as Lorentz symmetry. This could result in very weak forces that act on the scale of the solar system, although different theories make different predictions of the precise corrections to the spacecraft trajectories.....continued at site

Here's an interesting story about the pioneer anomaly from physicsworld.com.

[analog]

HARVARD GAZETTE ARCHIVES

Researchers now able to stop, restart light
By William J. Cromie
Gazette Staff

Lene Hau (Harvard University Professor of Physics) and her colleagues created a new form of matter to bring a light beam to a complete stop, then restart it again. (Staff photo by Kris Snibbe)

"Two years ago we slowed it down to 38 miles an hour; now we've been able to park it then bring it back up to full speed." Lene Hau isn't talking about a used motorbike, but about light – that ethereal, life-sustaining stuff that normally travels 93 million miles from the sun in about eight minutes.

Less than five years ago, the speed of light was considered one of the universe's great constants. Albert Einstein theorized that light cannot travel faster than 186,282 miles per second. No one has proved him wrong, but he never said that it couldn't go slower.

Hau, 41, a professor of physics at Harvard, admits that the famous genius would "probably be stunned" at the results of her experiments. Working at the Rowland Institute for Science, overlooking the Charles River and the gold dome of the state Capitol in Boston, she and her colleagues slowed light 20 million-fold in 1999, to an incredible 38 miles an hour. They did it by passing a beam of light through a small cloud of atoms cooled to temperatures a billion times colder than those in the spaces between stars. The atom cloud was suspended magnetically in a chamber pumped down to a vacuum 100 trillion times lower than the pressure of air in the room where you are reading this.

"It's nifty to look into the chamber and see a clump of ultracold atoms floating there," Hau says. "In this odd state, light takes on a more human dimension; you can almost touch it."

She and her team continued to tweak their system until they finally brought light to a complete stop. The light dims as it slows down, so you think that it's being turned out. Then Hau shoots a yellow-orange laser beam into the cloud of atoms, and the light emerges at full speed and intensity.

Inspired by Hau's success at slowing light, researchers working on a wooded hill a few miles away at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) used a similar technique to stop, then restart, a light beam. That team was headed by Ronald Walsworth and Mikhail Lukin, both associates of Harvard College. Their success was independent of Hau's effort.

"We didn't have much contact," she notes, "just a few e-mails."
Stopping cold

Besides stirring a research rush to explore exotic forms of matter, such experiments open the door to some practical applications. These include vastly more powerful computers as well as the possibility of communications that are much more secure from hackers and people trying to steal your credit and bank card numbers.

"We hope for wonderful things," says David Phillips, who worked on the CfA "stop light" project. "Our imagination hasn't figured out what the possibilities are yet."

Hau, a tall, slender scientist educated as a theoretical physicist in Denmark, had a hunch several years ago that intensely cold atoms would become a hot area in physics. In the mid-1990s, she and her colleagues became excited about experiments aimed at crowding atoms so close together that unusual things happen. The key is to cool them to within a billionth of a degree of minus 459.7 degrees F. Called "absolute zero," this is the temperature at which atoms have the least possible energy, and they all but cease to move around.......continued at site.

Here's an interesting article we've been discussing at a few threads (absolute rest?, Universal Vortical Singularity, and Quantum Tunneling). The link was first provided at another thread by Toequest member G_burnett. Thanks Graham.

Here's more links to a couple of videos by Lene Hau on the same subject:
Light stopper (2001) (2:52)
Light and matter (2007) (1:52)

[Tina]

Analog - what a resourceful Thread idea .

This is an article which describes TOE in very simple terms and may be helpful for beginners and seasoned TOEers alike.. I lost the link and cannot reference Quote at this point...sorry.

Just to keep us on our TOEs so to speak.

In current mainstream physics, a Theory of Everything would unify all the fundamental interactions of nature, which are usually considered to be four in number: gravity, the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, and the electromagnetic force. Because the weak force can transform elementary particles from one kind into another, the TOE should yield a deep understanding of the various different kinds of particles as well as the different forces. The expected pattern of theories is:

Theory of Everything

(N.B. FLOWCHART NO ABLE TO REPRODUCED HERE)

Gravity
Electronuclear force (GUT)

Strong force
Electroweak force

Weak force
Electromagnetism
Electric force
Magnetic force


In addition to the forces listed here, modern cosmology might require an inflationary force, dark energy, and also dark matter composed of fundamental particles outside the scheme of the standard model. The existence of these has not been proven and there are alternative theories such as modified Newtonian dynamics.
Electroweak unification is a broken symmetry: the electromagnetic and weak forces appear distinct at low energies because the particles carrying the weak force, the W and Z bosons have a mass of about 100 GeV, whereas the photon, which carries the electromagnetic force, is massless. At higher energies Ws and Zs can be created easily and the unified nature of the force becomes apparent. Grand unification is expected to work in a similar way, but at energies of the order of 1016 GeV, far greater than could be reached by any possible Earth-based particle accelerator. By analogy, unification of the GUT force with gravity is expected at the Planck energy, roughly 1019 GeV.
It may seem premature to be searching for a TOE when there is as yet no direct evidence for an electronuclear force, and while in any case there are many different proposed GUTs. In fact the name deliberately suggests the hubris involved. Nevertheless, most physicists believe this unification is possible, partly due to the past history of convergence towards a single theory. Supersymmetric GUTs seem plausible not only for their theoretical "beauty", but because they naturally produce large quantities of dark matter, and the inflationary force may be related to GUT physics (although it does not seem to form an inevitable part of the theory). And yet GUTs are clearly not the final answer. Both the current standard model and proposed GUTs are quantum field theories which require the problematic technique of renormalization to yield sensible answers. This is usually regarded as a sign that these are only effective field theories, omitting crucial phenomena relevant only at very high energies. Furthermore, the inconsistency between quantum mechanics and general relativity implies that one or both of these must be replaced by a theory incorporating quantum gravity.

Unsolved problems in physics: Is string theory, superstring theory, or M-theory, or some other variant on this theme, a step on the road to a "theory of everything", or just a blind alley?
The mainstream theory of everything at the moment is superstring theory / M-theory; current research on loop quantum gravity may eventually play a fundamental role in a TOE, but that is not its primary aim. These theories attempt to deal with the renormalization problem by setting up some lower bound on the length scales possible. String theories and supergravity (both believed to be limiting cases of the yet-to-be-defined M-theory) suppose that the universe actually has more dimensions than the easily observed three of space and one of time. The motivation behind this approach began with the Kaluza-Klein theory in which it was noted that applying general relativity to a five dimensional universe (with the usual four dimensions plus one small curled-up dimension) yields the equivalent of the usual general relativity in four dimensions together with Maxwell's equations (electromagnetism, also in four dimensions). This has led to efforts to work with theories with large number of dimensions in the hopes that this would produce equations that are similar to known laws of physics. The notion of extra dimensions also helps to resolve the hierarchy problem, which is the question of why gravity is so much weaker than any other force. The common answer involves gravity leaking into the extra dimensions in ways that the other forces do not.
In the late 1990s, it was noted that one problem with several of the candidates for theories of everything (but particularly string theory) was that they did not constrain the characteristics of the predicted universe. For example, many theories of quantum gravity can create universes with arbitrary numbers of dimensions or with arbitrary cosmological constants. Even the "standard" ten-dimensional string theory allows the "curled up" dimensions to be compactified in an enormous number of different ways (one estimate is 10500) each of which corresponds to a different collection of fundamental particles and low-energy forces. This array of theories is known as the string theory landscape.
A speculative solution is that many or all of these possibilities are realised in one or another of a huge number of universes, but that only a small number of them are habitable, and hence the fundamental constants of the universe are ultimately the result of the anthropic principle rather than a consequence of the theory of everything. This anthropic approach is often criticised in that, because the theory is flexible enough to encompass almost any observation, it cannot make useful (as in original, falsifiable, and verifiable) predictions. In this view, string theory would be considered a pseudoscience, where an unfalsifiable theory is constantly adapted to fit the experimental results.

[Lloyd Gillespie]

I thought these links should also be added:

http://www.physicsdaily.com/physics/Bose-Einstein_condensate
http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/
http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/Theorylinks.html
http://jilawww.colorado.edu/~arey/
http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/BEC_for_everyone/index.html
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2001/

All about Bose-Einstein condensates...rrr

[Lloyd Gillespie]

Here's another very important file that should be included in one's researches about light and aether...rrr

Christiaan Huygens_TREATISE ON LIGHT